"Thus the goat became very great, but at the height of his power, his large horn was broken off, and four prominent horns came up in its place, pointing toward the four winds of heaven."
Dan 8:8
Note that the text says four "prominent" horns came up—not that there were only four horns. What we know for sure, following the death of Alexander the Great, is that there were several generals (Diadochi) competing for control. Maps, like the one below, are helpful, but they only offer a snapshot of history at a particular point in time.
The borders of the Hellenistic kingdoms during the Diadochi period were extremely fluid, so it’s very hard to decisively pinpoint who those four prominent horns are. Two of them are easy because they are featured heavily in Daniel: the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms. First and Second Maccabees heavily document the influence of one of these two empires—the Seleucids. But the other two are harder to identify. Here’s why:
As the map above indicates, there were more than four generals competing for control. The map features Antigonus, Seleucus, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Cassander—but there were others.
In the early years following Alexander’s death, there were several wars. One of the more influential conflicts occurred when Antigonus sought to reunite Alexander’s empire. At the Battle of Ipsus, a coalition of Seleucus, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Cassander defeated and killed Antigonus. His territories were divided among the victors:
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Seleucus took Syria and the East.
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Lysimachus took Anatolia.
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Ptolemy kept Egypt and Palestine.
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Cassander retained Macedon.
So then there were four.
But Lysimachus’s empire did not last long. After the Battle of Corupedium, Lysimachus was killed, and his kingdom was partitioned.
So then there were three.
After Lysimachus’s death, a period of chaos emerged. The Seleucid Empire took most of Anatolia, the northwest corner came under Pergamon’s control, and Ptolemaic Egypt seized key coastal cities in Asia Minor and southern Syria.
Meanwhile, Cassander (Macedon) had died, and his empire was weakened. After his death, the son of Antigonus I (Demetrius I) invaded and briefly took control of Macedon. He was later driven out by Lysimachus (who was still alive at the time). Later, Celts invaded Macedon, destabilizing the region. Eventually, the great-grandson of Antigonus I (Antigonus II) marched into Macedon and took control, establishing the Antigonid dynasty there.
So then there were four again:
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Seleucids (Eastern Anatolia and Asia)
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Ptolemies (Egypt)
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Antigonids (Macedon)
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Pergamon (Western Anatolia)
It was after this that the Roman Empire began to grow in influence—first in Italy, then across the western Mediterranean. One by one, Rome defeated Antigonid Macedon, then Pergamon, then the Seleucid remnants, and finally Ptolemaic Egypt.
It should be noted that Rome was considered an ally of Israel during the Maccabean era (see 1 Maccabees 8). Judas Maccabeus sent envoys to seek an alliance with Rome to pressure the antagonistic Seleucid Empire. Only later did Rome become Israel’s overlord, following Pompey’s annexation of Judea.
